Conditions

Leukaemia is a where abnormal white blood cells grow in an uncontrolled way. This means you might not be able to fight off infections and can prevent other blood cells from working properly too.

There are four main types of leukaemia which are named based on whether the cancer grows quickly (acute) or slowly (chronic), and the type of stem cell affected. Stem cells are the cells that mature into the various cells found in your blood (red and white blood cells and platelets).

Leukaemia can affect:

• Myeloid stem cells – which produce red blood cells, platelets and some white blood cells
• Lymphoid stem cells – which produced white blood cells called B cells and T cells

The four main types of leukaemia are:

• Acute myeloid leukaemia (AML)
• Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL)
• Chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML)
• Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL)

Leukaemia can develop in both children and adults. In children and young adults, ALL is the most commonly occurring kind and CML is very rare. AML is the most common amongst 25 to 64 year olds, and CLL in 65s and over.

The causes of leukaemia are not fully understood and it’s hard to know who might develop the condition. There are risk factors that can increase the likelihood of you developing leukaemia, however, having one or more of these factors doesn’t mean you’ll get it.

Risk factors for leukaemia

You’re also more at risk of getting leukaemia if you:

• Are older – in adults, your risk of developing leukaemia increases with age; it is most common in people 60 or over
• Are male – chronic myeloid leukaemia and chronic lymphocytic leukaemia are more common in men than women
• Have a family history of leukaemia
• Have certain medical condition – such as some blood disorders, Fanconi’s anaemia and Down’s syndrome
• Smoke
• Have been exposed to radiation or have previously received radiotherapy
• Have previously undergone chemotherapy
• Have been exposed to chemicals, such as benzene or other solvents

Leukaemia can sometimes be difficult to diagnose as the symptoms are common to other illnesses. The most common signs of leukaemia before diagnosis are:

• Fatigue
• Breathlessness
• High temperature (fever) or sweating during the night
• Bruising and bleeding
• Lumps or swellings
• Bone or joint pain
• Repeated infections

You should see a doctor if you have one or more of these symptoms, or if you have any concerns.

Lymphoma is a blood cancer that occurs when white blood cells called lymphocytes abnormally grow out of control.

Lymphocytes are part of your immune system and are important in fighting off infections. They travel around your body through your lymph nodes – this is called your lymphatic system. In lymphoma, the abnormal lymphocytes start to accumulate in your lymph nodes and may form a lump.

There are many types of lymphoma, but they can be broadly split into two categories by examining the cancer. They are:

• Hodgkin lymphoma
• Non-Hodgkin lymphoma – there are many types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma

Around 80% of all lymphomas are Non-Hodgkin and only 20% are Hodgkin.

Lymphoma develops when your lymphocytes stop responding to some signals in the body because of a change in their DNA. Although we don’t know why these changes happen and what exactly causes lymphoma, there are some known risk factors that increase your chance of developing it.

These are:

• Age – Hodgkin lymphoma is more common if you’re aged 20 to 24 or over 70
• Sex – most people with Hodgkin lymphoma are men
• Family history – you’re more likely to develop lymphoma if you have a family member with the condition
• Your immune system – you’re more likely to develop the cancer if you have a weakened immune system. This may be because you’re receiving immunosuppression medication or have a condition such as HIV or AIDS
• An infection – in some rare cases, viruses and bacteria can add to the development of a lymphoma if they have caused a chronic immune response
• Lifestyle – some research has shown that smoking and a diet high in animal products can be linked to lymphoma
• If you’ve previously had cancer
• Other conditions of white blood cells – some non-cancerous conditions cause high levels of white blood cells and may later develop into a lymphoma

The most common symptom of lymphoma is a lump. You may have one or more of these and they can usually be found around your neck, collarbone, armpit, and groin.

These lumps are swollen lymph nodes and they are normally painless. You may find the lump becomes painful after drinking alcohol, and it can cause some discomfort if it starts to push on some of your organs.

If you have suspected lymphoma, you may hear your doctor talk about the ‘B symptoms’. Your doctor will look out for these and it will help them stage your cancer and plan your treatment. The B symptoms are high temperature, sweating at night and weight loss.

Myeloma is a cancer that develops in plasma cells. Plasma cells are a type of white blood cell that can be found in the bone marrow. They make immunoglobulin proteins which are important in fighting off infection. There are five types of immunoglobulin called IgA, IgD IgE, IgG and IgM.

In myeloma, plasma cells develop at an uncontrollable rate and become abnormal cancerous cells – these are called myeloma cells. Myeloma cells build up in the bone marrow and prevent it from making enough healthy blood cells. Myeloma is often called multiple myeloma, as the cancerous cells can affect the bone marrow in several areas of the body at once, such as the skull, spine, ribs and pelvis.

Myeloma cells also create abnormal immunoglobulins called paraproteins. These proteins are not effective in fighting off infection, so your immune system is weakened.

The type of myeloma you have is often named after the abnormal immunoglobulin it’s making. Around 65% of people have IgG myeloma and 20% IgA myeloma. IgD, IgE and IgM myeloma are rare.

It is not known exactly what causes myeloma, however, there are a number of risk factors that increase your likelihood of developing the condition.

There is a noticeable link between myeloma and another illness called monoclonal gammopathy of unknown significance (MGUS). MGUS is where there is an excess of immunoglobulin proteins in your blood. Around 1% of people with MGUS go on to develop myeloma. As of now there is no way to delay or prevent this from happening, so people with MGUS should have regular checks for myeloma.

Other risk factors for myeloma

You’re also more at risk of getting myeloma if you:

• Are older – myeloma is more common in people over 65 and rare in individuals under 40
• Are male
• Are black
• Have a family history of myeloma
• Have a weakened immune system – this may be because you’re receiving immunosuppression medication or have a condition such as HIV or AIDS
• Have an autoimmune disease – such as pernicious anaemia or lupus
• Are overweight

You may not have any symptoms in the early stages of myeloma. Often, it’s only diagnosed after a routine blood or urine test.

The most common sign of myeloma is bone pain and fracturing.  Your spine, ribs and pelvis are most likely to be affected.

Other common myeloma symptoms include:

• Fatigue – you may experience tiredness because of the myeloma or associated complications such as anaemia
• Recurring infection
• Kidney damage – abnormal products made from the myeloma can damage the kidneys. Other complications related to the cancer, such as hypercalcaemia (high calcium in the blood) can also damage the kidney

Having one or more of these symptoms does not mean you’ll have myeloma. You should see a doctor if you’re displaying any of these signs to receive a proper diagnosis.

The causes of bone cancer are not fully understood, and this makes it hard to know who may or may not develop the cancer. There are several risk factors that can increase the likelihood of you developing bone cancer, however, having one or more risk factors doesn’t mean you’ll get it. 

Risk factors for bone cancer 

You’re more at risk of getting bone cancer if you: 

• Have previously been exposed to radiation, for example radiotherapy treatment 
• Have other bone diseases – such as enchondroma, osteochondroma, Ollier’s disease or Paget disease 
• Have a certain inherited genetic condition – such as Li-Fraumeni syndrome or hereditary retinoblastoma 

Bone cancers can develop in any bone, but most often they affect the long bones of the legs or upper arms. The symptoms of bone cancer can vary according to the size of the cancer and where it is. Symptoms of bone cancer are: 

• Bone pain 
• Bone fracturing 
• A lump over the bone 
• Swelling or redness 
• Difficulty moving the joint 
• Fatigue 
• High temperature (fever) 
• Unexplained weight loss 

These symptoms may be caused by other benign conditions and having one or more of the signs above doesn’t mean you have bone cancer. You should see a doctor if you have any concerns. 

You’re more at risk of getting small bowel cancer if you: 

• Are older 
• Have a family history of familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) or hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) 
• Have Peutz Jeghers syndrome – an inherited condition where multiple polyps develop in the small bowel 
• Have an inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) or Crohn’s disease 
• Have coeliac disease  
• Eat too much red meat or smoked foods, or have a diet that is high in fat  
• Have previously had cancer of the colon or rectum 

You’re more at risk of developing large bowel cancer if you: 

• Are overweight or obese – around 11% of large bowel cancers in the UK are linked to this 
• Are older – more than 40% of large bowel cancers in the UK are diagnosed in people 75 or over 
• Have previously had large bowel cancer, or one or more family members have had bowel cancer 
• Have a family history of familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) or hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) 
• Have an inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), such as ulcerative colitis or Crohn’s disease 
• Drink alcohol or smoke cigarettes heavily  
• Eat too much red and processed meat, or too little fibre 
• Have polyps in your large bowel – these are small growths that are benign (non-cancerous) but can develop into cancer 
• Have a particular medical condition such as diabetes, gallstones or acromegaly  
• Have previously been exposed to radiation, such as radiotherapy treatment  

The main symptoms of small bowel cancer include: 

• Abdominal pains  
• Dark or black stools – this is because of bleeding  
• Diarrhoea 
• Unexpected weight loss  
• Nausea and vomiting 
• Tiredness  
• Low red blood cell count (anaemia) 

Sometimes, cancer in the small bowel can cause a complete or partial blockage. Symptoms of this include: 

• Abdominal pains 
• Vomiting 
• Constipation  
• Bloating 

In rare cases, a blockage can cause the small bowel to tear. This can happen suddenly and is a severe condition. Signs of a tear in the bowel are: 

• Severe pain 
• Feeling faint or dizzy 
• Abdominal swelling 

If you think you have a blockage or a tear in the bowel, you need to go to your nearest accident and emergency department (A&E). 

The main rectal and colon cancer symptoms include: 

• Changes in your usual bowel habits, such as having constipation or diarrhoea 
• Feeling as if you haven’t emptied your bowel properly after a bowel movement 
• Lights or dark blood in your stools 
• Pain when passing bowel movements 
• Nausea and vomiting 
• Abdominal pains 
• Unexplained weight loss or loss of appetite 
• Tiredness  
• Low red blood cell count (anaemia) 

Sometimes, cancer in the large bowel can cause a complete or partial blockage. Symptoms of this include: 

• Abdominal pains 
• Vomiting 
• Constipation  
• Bloating 

If you think you have a blockage or in the bowel, you need to go to your nearest accident and emergency department (A&E). 

Cervical cancer begins in the cervix. The cervix is the lower part of the uterus (womb) and joins to the vagina. Abnormal cells in the lining of the cervix grow abnormally in an uncontrolled way.

Cervical cancer is one of the most preventable forms of all cancers. It is easily treated if caught early. It can be triggered by a type of human papillomavirus (HPV) that is sexually acquired.

Learn more about cervical cancer

The fallopian tubes are part of a woman’s reproductive system and link the ovaries to the uterus (womb). It’s very rare for cancer to start in the fallopian tubes.

Most cancers that affect the fallopian tubes actually start somewhere else – usually in an ovary, breast, or the lining of the uterus (endometrium). This is known as secondary cancer. The most common kind of fallopian tube cancer is adenocarcinoma.

Learn more about fallopian tube cancer

Most cases of ovarian cancer affect women who have been through menopause, normally aged over 50.

Ovarian cancer happens when cancerous cells in the ovary grow and multiply in an uncontrolled way. They form a tumour that can spread to other areas of the body. At an early stage, ovarian cancer can be difficult to diagnose.

Learn more about ovarian cancer

Vaginal cancer begins in cells that line the surface of the vagina. It’s a rarer type of cancer.

The vagina is the area between the cervix and the vulva. While other types of cancer can spread to the vagina, it’s unusual for cancer to begin in this area.

It has a good chance of being cured if it’s diagnosed early but if it spreads beyond the vaginal area, it’s more difficult to treat.

Learn more about vaginal cancer

Vulval cancer is relatively rare. It can start in any part of the external female sex organs.

This includes the opening of the vagina, the inner and outer lips (also called labia minora and labia majora), the clitoris and the mons pubis (soft, fatty mound of tissue, above the labia).

Learn more about vulval cancer

Risk factors include genetics, being nulliparous (not had children), being overweight/obese, diabetes, lack of physical activity, hormone replacement therapy, polycystic ovary syndrome PCOS, polyps, Parkinson’s disease.

Learn more about uterus cancer

The exact causes of head and cancers are not known. There are risk factors that can increase the likelihood of you developing head and neck cancer. Having one or more of these factors does not mean you will get cancer.

The most common risk factors for head and neck cancers in the past were related to the use of alcohol and tobacco. However, more cases have been seen in people with little to no history of drinking alcohol or smoking over the last few decades. Now, it appears that infection with the human papilloma virus (HPV) is a more prominent risk factor.

You’re also more at risk of developing head and neck cancers if you:

• Are older – your risk of getting head and neck cancers increases with age, with most cases diagnosed in people over the age of 50
• Are male
• Have lowered immunity, such as due to certain conditions or medications
• Work with dust and certain chemicals
• Have poor oral hygiene

• A lump in the neck
• Swelling around your ear, jawbone, neck, cheek or eyes
• A sore throat or a feeling of a lump in the throat
• Changes to your voice and speech
• Red or white patches in the mouth that don’t go away
• Breathing problems – such as a persistent blocked nose, noisy breathing or shortness of breath
• Changes to your eating – pain or discomfort when swallowing or chewing, unexplained weight loss
• Pain or numbness
• Bleeding – in the mouth or nosebleeds
• Difficulty hearing or an earache

It’s important to remember that your symptoms may be caused by other, non-cancerous conditions. If you think you display one or more of these symptoms, it does not mean you have head and neck cancer. You should see a doctor if you have any concerns.

• Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) – the most common type of liver cancer which develops in the main liver cells called hepatocytes
• Fibrolamellar carcinoma – a rare subtype of HCC that usually develops in people aged 20 to 40
• Cholangiocarcinoma – this type of cancer starts in the bile ducts, which connect the liver to the small bowel. Bile is a liquid made in the liver and helps digest food
• Angiosarcoma – also known as hemangiosarcoma, this type of cancer is extremely rare and develops in the blood vessels of the liver
• Hepatoblastoma – a very rare type of liver cancer that primarily affects young children

The causes of liver cancer are not fully understood, making it hard to know who may or may not develop cancer. Several risk factors can increase the likelihood of you developing liver cancer, however, having one or more of these factors doesn’t mean you’ll get it.

Risk factors for liver cancer

You’re more at risk of getting liver cancer if you:

• Are older
• Are male – HCC is more common in men than women
• Are obese
• Smoke
• Have long-term infection of hepatitis B (HBV) or hepatitis C (HCV)
• Have cirrhosis, scarring of the liver
• Are type-2 diabetic
• Have non–alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) or metabolic syndrome – including high blood pressure (hypertension) and high blood sugar (hyperglycaemia)
• Have a family history of liver cancer
• Have previously taken anabolic steroids for a long period

Liver cancers don’t always cause symptoms in the early stages of the condition, so you may not experience any symptoms until it has become more advanced. The most common liver cancer symptoms include:

• Unexpected weight loss
• Loss of appetite
• Feeling full after eating small amounts
• Jaundice – yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes
• Itchy skin
• Nausea and vomiting
• Swelling or pain in the abdomen
• A lump in the abdomen

The most common cause of lung cancer is smoking. Around 85% of people who get lung cancer are either smokers or ex-smokers, and if you started smoking from a younger age your risk will be increased.

Research has shown that outdoor air pollution can also cause lung cancer. In the UK, almost 10% of lung cancer cases are caused by air pollution, but how this happens isn’t fully understood yet.

Risk factors for lung cancer

The likelihood of you developing lung cancer is much lower if you don’t smoke. However, you’re more at risk of getting lung cancer if you:

• Are around other smokers (passive smoking)
• Are older – although lung cancer can develop in people of any age, it’s more common in older people. Around 40% of people who are diagnosed with lung cancer are 75 or over
• Are exposed to chemicals and substances (carcinogens) through work – such as arsenic, asbestos, coal, silica and nickel
• Are exposed to radon gas – this is a naturally occurring gas that comes from soil, it may accumulate in buildings to unsafe levels in some parts of the UK
• Have family members with lung cancer – it’s not known if this is because lung cancer can run in the family (an inherited gene) or shared risk factors
• Have lowered immunity – your immune system could be weaker because of medication or if you have a condition such as HIV or AIDS
• Have previously received radiotherapy to your chest to treat other cancers

There are often no noticeable symptoms in the early stages of lung cancer, when the tumour is quite small. You may begin to develop some symptoms, including:

• Coughing
• Chest infections
• Chest pains
• Breathlessness – this can be during your daily activities or at rest
• Fatigue
• Loss of appetite or weight loss
• A hoarse voice
• Blood in your phlegm or mucus

We offer the latest treatments for lung cancer including chemotherapy, advanced radiotherapy and organ-sparing techniques, such as deep inspiration breath hold, as standard.

Our highly experienced cancer experts work as teams to ensure that every patient can access world-class cancer care, within days of diagnosis. You’ll receive a complete personalised care plan that has been designed to support you physically and emotionally through your cancer journey. After all, we’re treating you – not just your cancer.

Melanoma starts in skin cells called melanocytes. It is less common than non-melanoma skin cancer but it is more dangerous.

Melanoma can develop from existing moles or as a new mole or patch of abnormal skin that may appear (70% of cases). This can happen anywhere on the body but usually in areas more exposed to the sun.

The most common sign of melanoma is a new mole or a change to an existing mole. It is useful to use ABCDE for melanoma warning signs on existing moles:

• A – asymmetry – a healthy mole is usually round because it grows evenly, so an asymmetrical mole is a cause for concern
• B – border – a rough or blurred border that isn’t clearly defined
• C – colour – uneven colour of varying shade of pink and red or brown and black
• D – diameter – melanomas are often larger than 6mm though not always and healthy moles can be larger
• E – elevation or enlargement – the mole may grow, swell or become elevated or inflamed over time

The mole may also become itchy, bleed or crusty.

You should see a doctor if you notice a new mole or a change in an existing mole.

Non-melanoma skin cancer is the most common cancer in the UK, but it is mostly not life-threatening.

It starts in the top layer of the skin, called the epidermis, and is often related to sun exposure. There are two main types of non-melanoma skin cancer, depending on the type of skin cells affected, although it can be a mix of these types.

• Basal cell carcinoma – the most common type which very rarely spreads to another part of the body
• Squamous cell carcinoma – usually faster growing than basal cell carcinomas, and more likely to spread although it is still uncommon

Non-melanoma skin cancer usually appears gradually as a lump or patch of discoloured skin that persists for a few weeks. It can develop over months or years, with areas of abnormal but not yet cancerous cells (called pre-cancerous lesions) that may develop into cancerous cells over time.

You should see a doctor if you have any skin abnormality for over four weeks, such as a lump, ulcer, lesion or discolouration.

Non-melanoma skin cancer can occur on its own or within wider areas of pre-cancerous skin tissue containing abnormal cells that are at risk of developing into skin cancer – this is known as extensive skin field cancerisation.

Within this area of skin you may have rough patches called actinic keratosis caused by years of sun damage. Even though actinic keratosis is not cancerous, there’s a chance it may eventually turn into squamous cell cancer if the area isn’t treated. This means it’s important to treat it, as there’s a chance that squamous cell cancer can become an aggressive cancer that spreads throughout your body.